The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas
Hannah Ward
The text, “The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas,” was partially written by Perpetua from her own diary in prison and was edited and expanded on by an anonymous author. The purpose of this story is to bring glory to God, strengthen Christians within future weakness, and to create fellowship among the earthly and heavenly. With themes oriented around family, heroism, gender, and biblical references, this account uniquely testifies for the glory of God and the power of God in people. As this account focuses on Perpetua, a woman in the 3nd century, and how she glorifies God during her trials and her Martyrdom, it portrays how God can share his glory with people that aren’t commonly glorified.
The text begins with an introduction that identifies that the purpose of sharing these faith-inspired acts is to emphasize the greatness of God and to encourage people from these acts. This prepares and suspends the reader for the story of Perpetua’s and others’ imprisonment and martyrdom. Then the story begins with Perpetua’s personal diary entries of her experience on being arrested, imprisoned, and trialed. In these entries, Perpetua documents her interactions with her family and visions that were given to her from the Holy Spirit. Her family visits her a few times in prison and her father pleads that she would renounce her faith, but she stays true to her faith over her family. Though she momentarily feels pity and anxiety for her family, Perpetua feels confident and peaceful about her upcoming suffering. This confidence comes from her triumphant and empowering visions. In these visions, there are themes of heroism, biblical references, and gender. In both her visions, Perpetua is against an intimidating opponent, yet through the power of God, she is able to literally rise above her enemies, step on their heads, and defeat them. In another dream of hers’, Perpetua sees her deceased brother, Dinocrates, recognizes that he is suffering, and through her prayers, he is healed and redeemed. These visions, along with another vision given to Saturus, serve as an encouragement for the Martyrs in the story. Then God shows his favor through a miracle. As their Martyrdom is near, Felicitas experienced the Lord’s favor through an early childbirth, which allowed her to be executed alongside other innocent witnesses. The day of their Martyrdom, the group is described as entering the arena and suffering in glorious ways. The author emphasizes that the martyrs were choosing this fate and were joyful to sacrifice themselves for the glory of God. In the end of text, they were contested with beasts and at the end were willingly executed by sword.
The significance in the Martyrs’ stories is how Christians recognized the terrifying ways of being persecuted and altered the perspective to be a dignified act of glory and rewards. The people who sacrificed their lives “became heroes to their fellow Christians because they has imitated Christ, the model martyr.” (Lynch 84) Their willingness to die for their faith was seen as admirable and glorious. To appeal to all readers and provide a more effective encouragement, the main characters of this story are not heroes, but heroines. In The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas, there is the important theme of heroism from faith in God and how that faith is valuable than family, gender, tradition, and ultimately, life itself. As women were strictly expected to be respectful and dutiful to their family, Perpetua goes against her family’s wishes for her faith. Her father pleads for her to have pity on his grey head, as he is a loving father1. In other words, her father is asking to consider his wisdom (gained from his grey hair) and to respect him in his higher position. When her family visits her, Perpetua sympathizes with her family and gets anxious from not being able to care for her loved ones. This choice between the logical option to respect her family and the abstract option to chose her faith is unconventional during that time period. Although, because Perpetua remains loyal to God, she feels a freedom from her maternal responsibilities, when God set her at peace from being a part of a family near the time of her martydom.2 Another example that defies feminine traits would be Perpetua’s visions of defeating her enemies. In her first vision, she is able to fearlessly step on the dragon’s head on the ladder to heaven3, and in her second vision, Perpetua becomes a man and is able levitate off the ground, triumphs over him, and steps on his head.4 Later, in another vision, it is noted that she and Saturus cannot see God’s feet.5 This can be interpreted as God is literally working in Perpetua; that God gives divine strength and victory to the faithful, regardless of gender. Within this victory, there is reconciliation between God and his people, which is symbolized in the golden apple branch given to Perpetua after she defeats her opponent6 and in her being referred to as “a wife of God” as she enters the amphitheatre to her death.8 These suggest that Perpetua is able to redeem her identity as a woman and join in partnership with God.
The text of The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas is significant because it defies traditional traits of a woman, while emphasizing the power and victory that comes from a loyal faith to God. Its bold and inspiring to not only recognize women as the main characters of the story, but that a woman can be a hero with supernatural strength and triumph through God. This could be encouraging to early Christians, as it suggests God provides power to those who have loyal faith, even if they’re labeled as weak or have weakness. Overall, this text emphasizes the glory and honor in any Christian sacrificing their life for their faith.
Lynch, Joseph H.. "Roman Society and the Christians." Trans. Array Early Christianity: A Brief History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. 84. Print.
1. Anonymous , Author, and Perpetua . “The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas”. 44. Ehrman, Bart D. After The New Testament: A Reader in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
2. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 45.
3. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 44.
4. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 46.
5. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 47.
6. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 46.
8. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 48.
The text, “The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas,” was partially written by Perpetua from her own diary in prison and was edited and expanded on by an anonymous author. The purpose of this story is to bring glory to God, strengthen Christians within future weakness, and to create fellowship among the earthly and heavenly. With themes oriented around family, heroism, gender, and biblical references, this account uniquely testifies for the glory of God and the power of God in people. As this account focuses on Perpetua, a woman in the 3nd century, and how she glorifies God during her trials and her Martyrdom, it portrays how God can share his glory with people that aren’t commonly glorified.
The text begins with an introduction that identifies that the purpose of sharing these faith-inspired acts is to emphasize the greatness of God and to encourage people from these acts. This prepares and suspends the reader for the story of Perpetua’s and others’ imprisonment and martyrdom. Then the story begins with Perpetua’s personal diary entries of her experience on being arrested, imprisoned, and trialed. In these entries, Perpetua documents her interactions with her family and visions that were given to her from the Holy Spirit. Her family visits her a few times in prison and her father pleads that she would renounce her faith, but she stays true to her faith over her family. Though she momentarily feels pity and anxiety for her family, Perpetua feels confident and peaceful about her upcoming suffering. This confidence comes from her triumphant and empowering visions. In these visions, there are themes of heroism, biblical references, and gender. In both her visions, Perpetua is against an intimidating opponent, yet through the power of God, she is able to literally rise above her enemies, step on their heads, and defeat them. In another dream of hers’, Perpetua sees her deceased brother, Dinocrates, recognizes that he is suffering, and through her prayers, he is healed and redeemed. These visions, along with another vision given to Saturus, serve as an encouragement for the Martyrs in the story. Then God shows his favor through a miracle. As their Martyrdom is near, Felicitas experienced the Lord’s favor through an early childbirth, which allowed her to be executed alongside other innocent witnesses. The day of their Martyrdom, the group is described as entering the arena and suffering in glorious ways. The author emphasizes that the martyrs were choosing this fate and were joyful to sacrifice themselves for the glory of God. In the end of text, they were contested with beasts and at the end were willingly executed by sword.
The significance in the Martyrs’ stories is how Christians recognized the terrifying ways of being persecuted and altered the perspective to be a dignified act of glory and rewards. The people who sacrificed their lives “became heroes to their fellow Christians because they has imitated Christ, the model martyr.” (Lynch 84) Their willingness to die for their faith was seen as admirable and glorious. To appeal to all readers and provide a more effective encouragement, the main characters of this story are not heroes, but heroines. In The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas, there is the important theme of heroism from faith in God and how that faith is valuable than family, gender, tradition, and ultimately, life itself. As women were strictly expected to be respectful and dutiful to their family, Perpetua goes against her family’s wishes for her faith. Her father pleads for her to have pity on his grey head, as he is a loving father1. In other words, her father is asking to consider his wisdom (gained from his grey hair) and to respect him in his higher position. When her family visits her, Perpetua sympathizes with her family and gets anxious from not being able to care for her loved ones. This choice between the logical option to respect her family and the abstract option to chose her faith is unconventional during that time period. Although, because Perpetua remains loyal to God, she feels a freedom from her maternal responsibilities, when God set her at peace from being a part of a family near the time of her martydom.2 Another example that defies feminine traits would be Perpetua’s visions of defeating her enemies. In her first vision, she is able to fearlessly step on the dragon’s head on the ladder to heaven3, and in her second vision, Perpetua becomes a man and is able levitate off the ground, triumphs over him, and steps on his head.4 Later, in another vision, it is noted that she and Saturus cannot see God’s feet.5 This can be interpreted as God is literally working in Perpetua; that God gives divine strength and victory to the faithful, regardless of gender. Within this victory, there is reconciliation between God and his people, which is symbolized in the golden apple branch given to Perpetua after she defeats her opponent6 and in her being referred to as “a wife of God” as she enters the amphitheatre to her death.8 These suggest that Perpetua is able to redeem her identity as a woman and join in partnership with God.
The text of The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas is significant because it defies traditional traits of a woman, while emphasizing the power and victory that comes from a loyal faith to God. Its bold and inspiring to not only recognize women as the main characters of the story, but that a woman can be a hero with supernatural strength and triumph through God. This could be encouraging to early Christians, as it suggests God provides power to those who have loyal faith, even if they’re labeled as weak or have weakness. Overall, this text emphasizes the glory and honor in any Christian sacrificing their life for their faith.
Lynch, Joseph H.. "Roman Society and the Christians." Trans. Array Early Christianity: A Brief History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. 84. Print.
1. Anonymous , Author, and Perpetua . “The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas”. 44. Ehrman, Bart D. After The New Testament: A Reader in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
2. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 45.
3. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 44.
4. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 46.
5. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 47.
6. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 46.
8. (Anonymous et al. 1999), 48.
Martyrdom in Ancient Christianity
Elly C.
In ancient times, the early Christians were desperate to be heard and prove their faith. A very well-known and honorable way to do this was the prove one's faith at the expense of his/her life; to become a martyr. Upon capture, these accused Christians were often given the opportunity to deny their faith, that is to renounce their belief in Jesus and God himself. They were often asked to praise the emperor instead. Those who complied with the Romans would be spared, and those who refused to renounce their faith were executed. This was the Romans' way of turning people against the idea of being or becoming Christian, however; it happened to work in the favor of these early Christians for the heroic martyrdom brought them closer together and created a tighter bond in the religion. The story "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas" gives the account of the martyrdom of a young Roman woman and her slave.
In the beginning of "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas," a prayer is said to the Lord Jesus Christ. In this prayer, the importance of visions and prophecies is discussed and also the blessings that come along with martyrdom. Then in the third chapter, we are introduced to Perpetua's diary account of the events in the story. The diary starts out with the arrest of her and her slave, and her father is there trying to persuade her to recount her faith. This was a common theme in history and this particular story to have the family of those accused begging for them to admit their guilt to save their own lives. After an analogy to vase only being called a vase, she responds by saying, "Well, so too I cannot be called anything other than what i am, a Christian." (Perpetua 1:2). The statement of her faith is important not only because she was given the opportunity to go back on it to save her own life, but because she is Roman as well. The importance of the conversion of Romans to Christianity is also an important theme. Perpetua was baptized, then thrown into jail. Two deacons took care of her as she nursed her child in the prison. Her brother, sick with worry, said "Dear sister, you are greatly privileged; surely you might ask for a vision to discover whether you are to be condemned or freed." (Perpetua 4:1). Perpetua then had a vision of herself climbing to the heavens and drinking milk with God and afterwards she comes to the conclusion with her brother that it is her destiny to suffer this way. The theme of prophecy and visions is a vital theme to this story and the history of Christian martyrdom as well.
While her father persistently begged her admit her guilt, when Perpetua went to the hearing, she stated her faith as a Chrirstian and was put back in jail with a sentence to fight the beasts at the military games. Her son was to stay with her father from then on. Then she has more visions, two of Dinocrates, one showing her of her brother's suffering and the other of his relief. Then she has a vision of herself fighting in the arena as a man and receiving her victorious gift from God himself. This vision sets up the stage for the themes of masculinity and receiving praise from the lord for her actions. Amidst all of this, Perpetua's slave, Felicita was entering her eighth month of pregnancy and by way of the prayers of the other martyrs, she entered labor early so that she could fight in the arena with the others. She gave birth to a girl, who was the be brought up by her sister.
The day before the fight, there was a feast and many prayers said. Each martyr was matched with a particular beast, Perpetua and Felicitas were matched with a young cow, due to their gender. During the beginning of the fight, Perpetua seems oddly worried about her appearance and modesty which is a feministic mindset compared to the theme of masculinity she usually desires to show. Perpetua and Felicitas were both tossed on their backs by the heifer and stood back up. After this, the others faced their beasts and they all went to the usual spot to get their throats cut. Eager for more pain and to give her response to the punishment, Perpetua grabbed the hand of the soldier bearing the sword and guided it down to her own throat. This story ends with a prayer to God about the heroism of these honored martyrs.
Though not everyone was a martyr, martyrdom is considered one of the most influential reasons for why Christianity succeeded. Not everyone could be a Martyr, like Perpetua, some had "visions" or had other reasons to believe it to be their destiny to become a martyr and die for Jesus. According to Lynch on the "Persecution at Lyons and Vienne," "'Some were clearly ready to become our first martyrs, and finish their confession with all eagerness.' about ten others, 'appeared unprepared and untrained, still weak, and unable to endure so great a conflict.'" (Lynch 85). Therefore the theme of prophecy and gifts may not be the case for some of the people who claimed to have been martyrs of Christ. Some of them couldn't handle what they signed up for. This ties in with the theme of masculinity in the story of Perpetua. While she was gifted and blessed, she was also surrounded by men and eager to prove herself to be worthy and strong; much like the rest of the Christians wanting to be seen as worthy and strong.
It was an honor to be a martyr of Christ. Not only because they were seen as gifted or prophetic, but because it was known to be their destiny given to them by Christ. These martyrs lived and died for Christ and even in the moment he/she was given the opportunity to renounce his/her faith to save his/her life, he/she refused due to their faithfulness to the lord. Christians all around the world admired these martyrs and continue to honor their courage and faithfulness today.
Bibliography:
Ehrman, Bart. After The New Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.
Lynch, Joseph. Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
In ancient times, the early Christians were desperate to be heard and prove their faith. A very well-known and honorable way to do this was the prove one's faith at the expense of his/her life; to become a martyr. Upon capture, these accused Christians were often given the opportunity to deny their faith, that is to renounce their belief in Jesus and God himself. They were often asked to praise the emperor instead. Those who complied with the Romans would be spared, and those who refused to renounce their faith were executed. This was the Romans' way of turning people against the idea of being or becoming Christian, however; it happened to work in the favor of these early Christians for the heroic martyrdom brought them closer together and created a tighter bond in the religion. The story "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas" gives the account of the martyrdom of a young Roman woman and her slave.
In the beginning of "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas," a prayer is said to the Lord Jesus Christ. In this prayer, the importance of visions and prophecies is discussed and also the blessings that come along with martyrdom. Then in the third chapter, we are introduced to Perpetua's diary account of the events in the story. The diary starts out with the arrest of her and her slave, and her father is there trying to persuade her to recount her faith. This was a common theme in history and this particular story to have the family of those accused begging for them to admit their guilt to save their own lives. After an analogy to vase only being called a vase, she responds by saying, "Well, so too I cannot be called anything other than what i am, a Christian." (Perpetua 1:2). The statement of her faith is important not only because she was given the opportunity to go back on it to save her own life, but because she is Roman as well. The importance of the conversion of Romans to Christianity is also an important theme. Perpetua was baptized, then thrown into jail. Two deacons took care of her as she nursed her child in the prison. Her brother, sick with worry, said "Dear sister, you are greatly privileged; surely you might ask for a vision to discover whether you are to be condemned or freed." (Perpetua 4:1). Perpetua then had a vision of herself climbing to the heavens and drinking milk with God and afterwards she comes to the conclusion with her brother that it is her destiny to suffer this way. The theme of prophecy and visions is a vital theme to this story and the history of Christian martyrdom as well.
While her father persistently begged her admit her guilt, when Perpetua went to the hearing, she stated her faith as a Chrirstian and was put back in jail with a sentence to fight the beasts at the military games. Her son was to stay with her father from then on. Then she has more visions, two of Dinocrates, one showing her of her brother's suffering and the other of his relief. Then she has a vision of herself fighting in the arena as a man and receiving her victorious gift from God himself. This vision sets up the stage for the themes of masculinity and receiving praise from the lord for her actions. Amidst all of this, Perpetua's slave, Felicita was entering her eighth month of pregnancy and by way of the prayers of the other martyrs, she entered labor early so that she could fight in the arena with the others. She gave birth to a girl, who was the be brought up by her sister.
The day before the fight, there was a feast and many prayers said. Each martyr was matched with a particular beast, Perpetua and Felicitas were matched with a young cow, due to their gender. During the beginning of the fight, Perpetua seems oddly worried about her appearance and modesty which is a feministic mindset compared to the theme of masculinity she usually desires to show. Perpetua and Felicitas were both tossed on their backs by the heifer and stood back up. After this, the others faced their beasts and they all went to the usual spot to get their throats cut. Eager for more pain and to give her response to the punishment, Perpetua grabbed the hand of the soldier bearing the sword and guided it down to her own throat. This story ends with a prayer to God about the heroism of these honored martyrs.
Though not everyone was a martyr, martyrdom is considered one of the most influential reasons for why Christianity succeeded. Not everyone could be a Martyr, like Perpetua, some had "visions" or had other reasons to believe it to be their destiny to become a martyr and die for Jesus. According to Lynch on the "Persecution at Lyons and Vienne," "'Some were clearly ready to become our first martyrs, and finish their confession with all eagerness.' about ten others, 'appeared unprepared and untrained, still weak, and unable to endure so great a conflict.'" (Lynch 85). Therefore the theme of prophecy and gifts may not be the case for some of the people who claimed to have been martyrs of Christ. Some of them couldn't handle what they signed up for. This ties in with the theme of masculinity in the story of Perpetua. While she was gifted and blessed, she was also surrounded by men and eager to prove herself to be worthy and strong; much like the rest of the Christians wanting to be seen as worthy and strong.
It was an honor to be a martyr of Christ. Not only because they were seen as gifted or prophetic, but because it was known to be their destiny given to them by Christ. These martyrs lived and died for Christ and even in the moment he/she was given the opportunity to renounce his/her faith to save his/her life, he/she refused due to their faithfulness to the lord. Christians all around the world admired these martyrs and continue to honor their courage and faithfulness today.
Bibliography:
Ehrman, Bart. After The New Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.
Lynch, Joseph. Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Martyrdom
Troy W.
Martyr stories can be traced back to the end of time although the first account of a Christian martyr, not included in the New Testament, was Polycarp the Bishop of Smyrna. His story has been paralleled with the death of Jesus Christ and portrays how easy it was to have your life taken away for being part of the Christian faith.
The story begins as the writer (Ignatius) explains the bravery of all martyrs and how Polycarp was betrayed just as Jesus. Ignatius states, in honor to all martyrs, for they were no longer humans but already angels (Ehrman 31). The story then turns to Polycarp residing in his town and hearing of the news of arrests. He then, resiliently, went to a farm not far from town to pray. Polycarp then fell into a trance for three days and saw his pillow being consumed by fire and stated that it was necessary that he’d be burned alive (Ehrman 32). Authorities continued to search for him and he continued to move to new farms. His own companions then betrayed him and the Captain Herod arrived at his current location to take him to the stadium, where after the traitors shared the same fate of Judas. We see here Ignatius trying to portray Polycarp’s story as Christ like. Ignatius then writes those who were present marvelled at his age and his composure they wondered why there was so much eagerness for the arrest of an old man like him (Ehrman 32). Polycarp was allowed to pray for two more hours after which his transportation to the stadium began.
On the carriage ride Herod and his father Nicetes tried to persuade Polycarp to say Caesar is Lord, to offer incense and explaining that there is no harm in doing such. Polycarp responded I am not about to do what you are suggesting to me (Ehrman 32). They arrived to the stadium and now Herod and the officers did not treat him as nicely though Polycarp paid no attention to this and headed anxiously to the stadium. A voice from heaven came down by which present Christians only heard “Be strong, Polycarp, and act like a man” (Ehrman 33). The Magistrate asked him if he was indeed Polycarp and then tells him if he swears to Caesar and states “away with the atheists” he would be set free. Polycarp does say away with the atheists but then states he cannot blaspheme his king who has saved him (Ehrman 33). Polycarp keeps insisting he is in fact a Christian and nothing more, he takes no advice from the magistrate and tells him if he wished to know about the gospel tell him a place and time. The proconsul informs Polycarp of his beasts and his fire to give him one more chance. Polycarp states you threaten with fire that burns only briefly and after just a little while is extinguished, for you are ignorant of the fire of the coming judgment and eternal punishment, which is reserved for the ungodly. But why do you delay? Come, do what you wish (Ehrman 33). This shows the stubbornness of Christians and the everlasting theme of eternal salvation for martyrs. People in the crowd shouted in anger and wanted a lion to be released but Polycarp made sure his fate would be done by fire.
The pyre was prepared by the Jews and Gentiles with much excitement and as they were going to nail him down Polycarp said he who enables me to endure the fire will also enable me to remain on the pyre without moving (Ehrman 34). As he sat on the prepared fire he proclaimed God’s name one last time then the men lit the fire. A miracle took place as the fire took shape of an arch and completely surrounded the body of the martyr (Ehrman 34). He was not dying from the fire so a guard went up to stab him and when this happened his blood poured out and extinguished the fire. Polycarp still wished to be martyred for he feared these people would abandon the crucified one (Jesus) and worship him (Ehrman 34). So after Polycarp’s death they gathered his bones and celebrated his martyrdom.
The significance of these martyrs is that they provided Christians with a model of how to live and even if they faltered in the presence of prosecution their bravery still showed (Lynch 86). The fact that these people were willing to die for their faith made the people of the world think they were crazy or show them there must be something more to this religion. Although one negative aspect of this attention was a multitude of Christians deliberately provoking authorities with the idea that Jesus would come sooner for them (Lynch 87). Being martyred made Christians feel like Christ and in their minds ensured a direct pathway to heaven. Not only were these martyrs throwing themselves at Roman authorities but they were also embarrassing them by gaining glory from their cruelty. This created a new Christian mythology that had a powerful emphasis on the minutiae of violence. Martyrdom becomes a form of spectacle in itself (Freeman 208). So Roman persecution resulted in Christian fame and even interested some pagans. Authorities unintentionally made Christianity more popular hindering their own ability to enforce Caesars will. This is just one of the reasons Christianity became a worldwide religion and paved the way for future converts. Without this chase to exterminate Jesus’s followers Christianity may not be where it is today.
Bibleography
1) Ehrman, Bart D. After the New Testament: A Reader in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
2) Freeman, Charles. A New History of Christianity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009. (Part III, chapter 20)
3)Lynch, Joseph H. Early Christianity: A Brief History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010
Martyr stories can be traced back to the end of time although the first account of a Christian martyr, not included in the New Testament, was Polycarp the Bishop of Smyrna. His story has been paralleled with the death of Jesus Christ and portrays how easy it was to have your life taken away for being part of the Christian faith.
The story begins as the writer (Ignatius) explains the bravery of all martyrs and how Polycarp was betrayed just as Jesus. Ignatius states, in honor to all martyrs, for they were no longer humans but already angels (Ehrman 31). The story then turns to Polycarp residing in his town and hearing of the news of arrests. He then, resiliently, went to a farm not far from town to pray. Polycarp then fell into a trance for three days and saw his pillow being consumed by fire and stated that it was necessary that he’d be burned alive (Ehrman 32). Authorities continued to search for him and he continued to move to new farms. His own companions then betrayed him and the Captain Herod arrived at his current location to take him to the stadium, where after the traitors shared the same fate of Judas. We see here Ignatius trying to portray Polycarp’s story as Christ like. Ignatius then writes those who were present marvelled at his age and his composure they wondered why there was so much eagerness for the arrest of an old man like him (Ehrman 32). Polycarp was allowed to pray for two more hours after which his transportation to the stadium began.
On the carriage ride Herod and his father Nicetes tried to persuade Polycarp to say Caesar is Lord, to offer incense and explaining that there is no harm in doing such. Polycarp responded I am not about to do what you are suggesting to me (Ehrman 32). They arrived to the stadium and now Herod and the officers did not treat him as nicely though Polycarp paid no attention to this and headed anxiously to the stadium. A voice from heaven came down by which present Christians only heard “Be strong, Polycarp, and act like a man” (Ehrman 33). The Magistrate asked him if he was indeed Polycarp and then tells him if he swears to Caesar and states “away with the atheists” he would be set free. Polycarp does say away with the atheists but then states he cannot blaspheme his king who has saved him (Ehrman 33). Polycarp keeps insisting he is in fact a Christian and nothing more, he takes no advice from the magistrate and tells him if he wished to know about the gospel tell him a place and time. The proconsul informs Polycarp of his beasts and his fire to give him one more chance. Polycarp states you threaten with fire that burns only briefly and after just a little while is extinguished, for you are ignorant of the fire of the coming judgment and eternal punishment, which is reserved for the ungodly. But why do you delay? Come, do what you wish (Ehrman 33). This shows the stubbornness of Christians and the everlasting theme of eternal salvation for martyrs. People in the crowd shouted in anger and wanted a lion to be released but Polycarp made sure his fate would be done by fire.
The pyre was prepared by the Jews and Gentiles with much excitement and as they were going to nail him down Polycarp said he who enables me to endure the fire will also enable me to remain on the pyre without moving (Ehrman 34). As he sat on the prepared fire he proclaimed God’s name one last time then the men lit the fire. A miracle took place as the fire took shape of an arch and completely surrounded the body of the martyr (Ehrman 34). He was not dying from the fire so a guard went up to stab him and when this happened his blood poured out and extinguished the fire. Polycarp still wished to be martyred for he feared these people would abandon the crucified one (Jesus) and worship him (Ehrman 34). So after Polycarp’s death they gathered his bones and celebrated his martyrdom.
The significance of these martyrs is that they provided Christians with a model of how to live and even if they faltered in the presence of prosecution their bravery still showed (Lynch 86). The fact that these people were willing to die for their faith made the people of the world think they were crazy or show them there must be something more to this religion. Although one negative aspect of this attention was a multitude of Christians deliberately provoking authorities with the idea that Jesus would come sooner for them (Lynch 87). Being martyred made Christians feel like Christ and in their minds ensured a direct pathway to heaven. Not only were these martyrs throwing themselves at Roman authorities but they were also embarrassing them by gaining glory from their cruelty. This created a new Christian mythology that had a powerful emphasis on the minutiae of violence. Martyrdom becomes a form of spectacle in itself (Freeman 208). So Roman persecution resulted in Christian fame and even interested some pagans. Authorities unintentionally made Christianity more popular hindering their own ability to enforce Caesars will. This is just one of the reasons Christianity became a worldwide religion and paved the way for future converts. Without this chase to exterminate Jesus’s followers Christianity may not be where it is today.
Bibleography
1) Ehrman, Bart D. After the New Testament: A Reader in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
2) Freeman, Charles. A New History of Christianity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009. (Part III, chapter 20)
3)Lynch, Joseph H. Early Christianity: A Brief History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010
Finding Victory in Death and Defeat
Jerome J.
In the second century C.E. Christianity spread far and wide across the Roman Empire. The new religion was one unlike most others at the time. Whereas today most people have a general understanding of what Christianity is about, most people then had very little knowledge about those who followed Christ and what they believed. As the Christian movement gained momentum, many Roman citizens grew afraid that these Christians would disturb the pax deorum – the “peace of the gods.” The members of the new faith rejected the gods of the established religio and refused to offer sacrifice to the emperor of Rome. Worried that these atheistic practices would upset the prosperity of Rome, many Christians began to fall under persecution. While this persecution was sporadic and not yet widespread, it became serious enough in some periods where Christians were falsely accused of crimes, beaten, tortured, and even killed publicly.
The Martyrdom of Polycarp tells the story of one such Christian who experienced this early Roman persecution based solely on his confession of faith. Set around the year 155 C.E., the letter follows the arrest, trial, and death of Polycarp, the 86 year old bishop of Smyrna in Asia Minor. The main plot of The Martyrdom of Polycarp follows very closely to the traditions of Christ’s own death, which is by no means a coincidence. This account exemplifies several common characteristics of early Christian martyrdom narratives. The first is that one could be condemned to death for simply refusing to swear by the genius – or divine spirit – of Caesar (Mar. Pol. 9:2). This was the only charge made against him, yet it was enough to disrupt the peace and thus punishable by death. Another common theme seen throughout is the positive portrayal of Polycarp’s death. While out rightly stating that martyrdom should not be sought ought (Mar. Pol.4), the letter depicts dying in the name of Christ as blessing that should be welcomed if a Christian is presented with the challenge. Polycarp exemplifies how every Christian should act when confronted with the pressure to deny Christ. The letter states that Christians should celebrate his martyrdom “in commemoration of those who have already fought in the contest, and for the training and preparation of those who will do so in the future” (Mar. Pol. 18:3). Like most martyrdom stories, The Martyrdom of Polycarp is intended to inspire and serve as a guide for anyone facing a similar persecution.
In his article “The Martyrdom of Polycarp: Death in the Roman Games,” Leonard L. Thompson brings to light an interesting aspect of Polycarp’s death that can be easily overlooked. He suggests that Polycarp’s death should not just be examined in the context of persecution in second century Rome, but rather read specifically in the context of the Roman Games. To examine Polycarp’s death in light of the competitions, one must understand the stages at which the games proceeded throughout the day. Thompson explains that a typical day of Roman gladiatorial games is divided into three stages: Animal hunts in the morning, executions at midday, and gladiator fights in the afternoon. The morning events consist of animal hunts, or battles with wild beasts. Thompson makes an interesting observation about the significance of these segments, noting that “the morning hunts displayed the empire’s power over nature in the wild and the afternoon gladiatorial duels exhibited Roman military virtues, [and] the midday executions demonstrated Rome’s concern for law and order”(Thompson 33). Polycarp was arrested at suppertime (Mar. Pol. 7:1), taken directly to the stadium (Mar. Pol. 8:3), and then is confronted directly by the proconsul in front of a large crowd (Mar. Pol.9-11). He was likely not tried in a traditional Roman court setting, but rather in the stadium at Smyrna during the blood games. This would also explain why when the masses asked for a lion to be let loose upon Polycarp, Philip the Asiarch replied saying it would be unlawful because the animal hunts have already been brought to a close (Mar. Pol.12:2).
What difference does it make then whether or not Polycarp was tried and executed in the midst of these Roman blood games? How does this context bring new meanings to The Martyrdom of Polycarp? Put simply, the Roman games were about winners and losers; to die in the games meant defeat. In the case of Polycarp, however, “victory on either side would be ambiguous. Both church and empire could claim that its power and justice were inscribed on Polycarp’s burnt skin” (Thompson 39). The account of Polycarp’s martyrdom was not only meant to show how dying a martyr’s death can be an honor and a blessing from God, but also to demonstrate how Christian’s found victory in the Roman blood games where others saw defeat. To elaborate more on this point, Thompson observes how the political rites of interrogation and execution carried out by the proconsul “affirm the social order and assert social control of the empire: criminals are punished, wrongs are righted, and justice is brought back into balance” (Thompson 41). From the Roman perspective, Polycarp’s death has been a successful part of the games, and restoration has been brought back to the pax deorum. On the other hand, Polycarp simultaneously “subverted those political rites by transforming them into Christian rites of martyrdom” (Thompson 41). A Christian reading the dialogue between Polycarp and the proconsul in chapters 9 through 11 wouldn’t see the events as fulfilling the political procedures to restore peace. Instead, he would interpret the sequence of Polycarp’s actions in the complete opposite light. The Christian reader would see Polycarp’s verbal acknowledgment from heaven, his refusal to denounce Christ and sharp counter-points, and his unwavering commitment to die as the fulfillment of Christian martyrdom rites. By overturning the Roman customs of the blood games and finding victory in what is usually seen as defeat, the author of The Martyrdom of Polycarp bolsters his message and is more likely to achieve his objective of inspiring and encouraging Roman Christians facing similar persecution.
Works Cited
Thompson, Leonard. "The Martyrdom of Polycarp:
Death in the Roman Games." Journal of
Religion. no. 82 (2002): 27-52.
Jerome J.
In the second century C.E. Christianity spread far and wide across the Roman Empire. The new religion was one unlike most others at the time. Whereas today most people have a general understanding of what Christianity is about, most people then had very little knowledge about those who followed Christ and what they believed. As the Christian movement gained momentum, many Roman citizens grew afraid that these Christians would disturb the pax deorum – the “peace of the gods.” The members of the new faith rejected the gods of the established religio and refused to offer sacrifice to the emperor of Rome. Worried that these atheistic practices would upset the prosperity of Rome, many Christians began to fall under persecution. While this persecution was sporadic and not yet widespread, it became serious enough in some periods where Christians were falsely accused of crimes, beaten, tortured, and even killed publicly.
The Martyrdom of Polycarp tells the story of one such Christian who experienced this early Roman persecution based solely on his confession of faith. Set around the year 155 C.E., the letter follows the arrest, trial, and death of Polycarp, the 86 year old bishop of Smyrna in Asia Minor. The main plot of The Martyrdom of Polycarp follows very closely to the traditions of Christ’s own death, which is by no means a coincidence. This account exemplifies several common characteristics of early Christian martyrdom narratives. The first is that one could be condemned to death for simply refusing to swear by the genius – or divine spirit – of Caesar (Mar. Pol. 9:2). This was the only charge made against him, yet it was enough to disrupt the peace and thus punishable by death. Another common theme seen throughout is the positive portrayal of Polycarp’s death. While out rightly stating that martyrdom should not be sought ought (Mar. Pol.4), the letter depicts dying in the name of Christ as blessing that should be welcomed if a Christian is presented with the challenge. Polycarp exemplifies how every Christian should act when confronted with the pressure to deny Christ. The letter states that Christians should celebrate his martyrdom “in commemoration of those who have already fought in the contest, and for the training and preparation of those who will do so in the future” (Mar. Pol. 18:3). Like most martyrdom stories, The Martyrdom of Polycarp is intended to inspire and serve as a guide for anyone facing a similar persecution.
In his article “The Martyrdom of Polycarp: Death in the Roman Games,” Leonard L. Thompson brings to light an interesting aspect of Polycarp’s death that can be easily overlooked. He suggests that Polycarp’s death should not just be examined in the context of persecution in second century Rome, but rather read specifically in the context of the Roman Games. To examine Polycarp’s death in light of the competitions, one must understand the stages at which the games proceeded throughout the day. Thompson explains that a typical day of Roman gladiatorial games is divided into three stages: Animal hunts in the morning, executions at midday, and gladiator fights in the afternoon. The morning events consist of animal hunts, or battles with wild beasts. Thompson makes an interesting observation about the significance of these segments, noting that “the morning hunts displayed the empire’s power over nature in the wild and the afternoon gladiatorial duels exhibited Roman military virtues, [and] the midday executions demonstrated Rome’s concern for law and order”(Thompson 33). Polycarp was arrested at suppertime (Mar. Pol. 7:1), taken directly to the stadium (Mar. Pol. 8:3), and then is confronted directly by the proconsul in front of a large crowd (Mar. Pol.9-11). He was likely not tried in a traditional Roman court setting, but rather in the stadium at Smyrna during the blood games. This would also explain why when the masses asked for a lion to be let loose upon Polycarp, Philip the Asiarch replied saying it would be unlawful because the animal hunts have already been brought to a close (Mar. Pol.12:2).
What difference does it make then whether or not Polycarp was tried and executed in the midst of these Roman blood games? How does this context bring new meanings to The Martyrdom of Polycarp? Put simply, the Roman games were about winners and losers; to die in the games meant defeat. In the case of Polycarp, however, “victory on either side would be ambiguous. Both church and empire could claim that its power and justice were inscribed on Polycarp’s burnt skin” (Thompson 39). The account of Polycarp’s martyrdom was not only meant to show how dying a martyr’s death can be an honor and a blessing from God, but also to demonstrate how Christian’s found victory in the Roman blood games where others saw defeat. To elaborate more on this point, Thompson observes how the political rites of interrogation and execution carried out by the proconsul “affirm the social order and assert social control of the empire: criminals are punished, wrongs are righted, and justice is brought back into balance” (Thompson 41). From the Roman perspective, Polycarp’s death has been a successful part of the games, and restoration has been brought back to the pax deorum. On the other hand, Polycarp simultaneously “subverted those political rites by transforming them into Christian rites of martyrdom” (Thompson 41). A Christian reading the dialogue between Polycarp and the proconsul in chapters 9 through 11 wouldn’t see the events as fulfilling the political procedures to restore peace. Instead, he would interpret the sequence of Polycarp’s actions in the complete opposite light. The Christian reader would see Polycarp’s verbal acknowledgment from heaven, his refusal to denounce Christ and sharp counter-points, and his unwavering commitment to die as the fulfillment of Christian martyrdom rites. By overturning the Roman customs of the blood games and finding victory in what is usually seen as defeat, the author of The Martyrdom of Polycarp bolsters his message and is more likely to achieve his objective of inspiring and encouraging Roman Christians facing similar persecution.
Works Cited
Thompson, Leonard. "The Martyrdom of Polycarp:
Death in the Roman Games." Journal of
Religion. no. 82 (2002): 27-52.